Canker Tree Disease Prevention and Control

The term   canker is used to describe a killed area or blister on the bark, a branch or the trunk of an infected tree. The Morton Arboretum describes it as a canker  that is usually oval to elongate, but can vary in size and shape. Cankers will often appear as a swelling surrounding a sunken lesion  on the bark of trunks and branches. The canker-causing pathogens like fungi and bacteria commonly invade wounded or injured bark tissues to form a canker. They subsequently produce reproductive structures called fruiting bodies and can spread. Dozens of species of fungi cause canker disease. Causes Cankers are caused by a number of factors including biotic fungi and bacteria or by abiotic and nonliving conditions to include excessive low or high temperature,  hail and other natural and mechanical tree damage. A combination of these attacks is potentially the most successful process in causing a tree to develop a canker. The fungi that cause cankers are always around and naturally inhabit the bark surface of a tree. They look for the opportunity to gain entrance through natural or man-made wounds  and usually have the best chance to cause canker disease when the tree is under stress. Stressors that cause cankers include: exposure to extremely high or low temperaturesflooding and droughtsummer or winter sunscald, hail, high windsnutritional imbalances and soil compactionmechanical injuries (lawn mower, vehicles) and animal damagepruning woundsroot rot and insect borersimproper planting Prevention Preventing cankers means growing vigorous trees that can fight off the entrance of pathogens into the bark by using a good tree management program. You must be faithful to your tree by using correct pruning methods, taking care  not to over-fertilize and prevent defoliation of your tree by disease and insects. Wounds are essential for most canker infections to take hold and spread, so avoid wounds, especially where active spore-spreading cankers are present. Make sure that your tree has adequate water and avoid mechanical injury to roots and trunk. When planting a new tree: Plant your tree on a good site, use vigorous planting stock, fertilize trees to promote growth and control weeds for several years after planting. Landscape trees will benefit by deep watering or trickle irrigation, especially during dry summer months. Also maintain good drainage. Control Canker diseases can be controlled if diagnosed early and action is taken. To control canker disease on trees, cut off the affected branch or limb using proper  pruning methods. If a large canker is on the main trunk, the tree may ultimately need to be replaced. Still remember that when  a trunk canker develops, the tree may begin to compartmentalize off the area by sealing wood cells off around the canker. You may be able to extend the life of the tree by just leaving it alone. Do not cut into trunk cankers as it may renew fungal activity and increase damage.There are no effective chemicals are available to control the fungi that cause canker disease.

Malthusian Theory in relation to the Caribbean - 2024 Words

Malthusian Theory in relation to the Caribbean According to Chinapoo et Al (2014), Thomas Malthus’s Theory (1798), claims that population growth is determined by certain natural laws and food supply was the main limit to population. He argued that population increases faster than the food supply and compared the way in which each increases. Malthus theory of population can be used to explain the dynamics of the relationship between population and resources in less developed territories. Since the Caribbean is considered to be less developed in comparison to other nation-states for example, the US, France, England and so on, the Malthusian theory of population can be applied to explain population-resource issues in the Caribbean. However†¦show more content†¦According to Green (1976), there were several cases during slavery, where most women deliberately engaged in sexual activity in the hope to get pregnant as a way of escaping the plantation hardships. Also, Malthus purported that the poor was a drain and strain on society and believed that providing welfare will only encourage them to reproduce more as previously stated. However in historical Caribbean society, although high levels of poverty existed, there was no welfare available to support the poor due to the greater nations focusing on other factors such as defeating the spread of communism. As a result, Malthus’s theory is seen to be inapplicable in this situation as welfare was not involved and the population did not increase rapidly in relation to the food supply. On the other hand, According to the Demographic Transition Theory (DTT) developed by George Roberts, the Caribbean region has seen to evolve over the years, from slavery to emancipation to independence. The region is slowly developing due to introductions to technology, industrialization, modernization and globalization. As a result of its development, Malthus’s population theory is seen to be very inapplicable to contemporary Caribbean society. According to Chinapoo et Al (2014), the presence of globalization in contemporary Caribbean society makes Malthus’s theory extraneous. Malthus underestimated human’s capacity to move themselves and goods.Show MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesshaped the likelihood and direction of migration in many forms. Labor demands and low frontier populations produ ced both higher wages and increased opportunities for employment and trade. At the same time, increased commercialization impacted rural relations around the world, creating both the need and the opportunities to spend money earned through the wages of migrants. The growth of commercial agriculture and rural industry also provided an impetus for seasonal rural-to-rural moves.7 In Europe alone

Verb phrases free essay sample

List of Shortenings N noun NP noun phrase Adj adjective AdjP adjectival phrase Adv adverb AdvP adverb phrase V verb VP verb phrase P preposition PP preposition phrase S sentence Introduction The subject of the present paper is probe of verb phrases in the construction of the modern American text. Verb phrases are examined in the research work paper as a method included into vocalization excess lingual context in prism of human comprehension of the environing life. Freshness of the semester paper lies in cognitive and communicative attacks to lingual analysis of verb phrases aimed at geting the communicative competency. The purpose of the work is to depict the workings of the system of particular verb signifiers used in English to turn up state of affairss in clip. Object of the research is the verb within sentence structure and morphology. Subject of the research is semantic dealingss of verb phrases in the discourse construction. The aim of the work is to put the terminological and conceptual basis which is necessary in supplying precise definitions of the basic lingual footings covering with the English verb phrases. The methods of lingual analysis used in this research paper work are: 1. Componential analysis,which helps to research lexemes that have a common scope of significance and constitutes a semantic sphere of this undertaking. 2. Discourse analysis,that enables to uncover the hidden motives behind a text or behind the pick of a peculiar method of research to construe that text. 3. Semantic analysis which is used to split all the verb phrases of the text into groups, refering their semantic significances. 4. Distinctive analysis,which intent is to mensurate the penchant of one verb phrase over another peculiar building. Theoretical value of the paper is based on the analyzed information of 20 pages with verb phrases used in the novel. Practical value of the work may be utile in theoretical grammar and general linguistics. Structurally the term paper consists of three parts. The first portion is dedicated to syntax and maps of the verbs within sentence structure and morphology. The 2nd portion defines basic lingual footings, such as # 8216 ; verb # 8217 ; , # 8216 ; verb give voice # 8217 ; , # 8216 ; classs of the verb # 8217 ; , etc. Since this survey is intended as the portion of a theoretical grammar, it seems necessary to do explicit the manner in which we use such footings. The 3rd portion presents the discourse analysis of the verb phrases in the novel # 8220 ; Forsyte Saga # 8221 ; by John Galsworthy. Each portion has decisions that carry the most utile and of import information refering the subject of the paper. In the terminal of the paper there are addendums supplying the most of import impressions and footings, and besides a list of abbreviations that can be found in the paper ; and the list of bibliography used while doing the research. Part I. Syntax 1.1Peculiarities of the English Syntax Language plays a alone function in capturing the comprehensiveness of human diverseness. We are invariably amazed by the assortment of human idea, civilization, society, and literature expressed in many 1000s of linguistic communications around the universe. We can happen out what people think merely through their linguistic communication. We can happen out what they thought in the past merely if we read their written records. We can state future coevalss about ourselves merely if we speak or write to them. If we want other civilisations in infinite to larn about us we send them messages in tonss of our planet s six thousand linguistic communications. Language has frequently been characterized as a systematic correlativity between certain types of gestures and significance. For spoken linguistic communication, the gestures are unwritten, and for signed linguistic communication, they are manual. It is non the instance that every possible significance that can be expressed is correlated with a unique, undecomposable gesture, be it unwritten or manual. Rather, each linguistic communication has a stock of meaning-bearing elements and different ways of uniting them to show different significances, and these ways of uniting them are themselves meaningful. The two English sentences Chris gave the notebook to Dana and Dana gave the notebook to Chris contain precisely the same meaning-bearing elements, i.e. words, but they have different significances because the words are combined otherwise in them. These different combinations fall into the kingdom of sentence structure ; the two sentences differ non in footings of the words in them but instead in footings of their sentence structure. Syntax can therefore be given the undermentioned word picture, taken from Matthews [ 40, p.48 ] : The term # 8216 ; syntax # 8217 ; is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means # 8216 ; agreement # 8217 ; or # 8216 ; puting out together # 8217 ; . Traditionally, it refers to the subdivision of grammar covering with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to demo connexions of intending within the sentence. First and first, syntax trades with how sentences are constructed, and users of human linguistic communications employ a dramatic assortment of possible agreements of the elements in sentences. One of the most obvious yet of import ways in which linguistic communications differ is the order of the chief elements in a sentence. In English, for illustration, the topic comes before the verb and the direct object follows the verb. The connexion between the words in a sentence is realized through the alterations in their signifiers and these alterations in the signifier of the words to bespeak their map in the sentence are what Matthews referred to as # 8216 ; inflexions # 8217 ; , and the survey of the formation of words and how they may alter their signifier is called morphology. [ 40, p.53 ] Something which may be expressed syntactically in some linguistic communications may be ex-pressed morphologically in others. Which component is capable and which is object is signaled syntactically in the illustrations from English, while it is expressed morphologically in the Ukrainian illustrations. Syntax and morphology make up what is traditionally referred to as # 8216 ; grammar # 8217 ; ; an alternate term for it is morphosyntax, which explicitly recognizes the of import relationship between sentence structure and morphology. [ 40, p.56 ] Syntax trades with simple sentences, like: ( 1 ) Bosinney was waiting for the reply. [ 59, p.25 ] ( 2 ) Mrs. Small grew nervous. [ 59, p.54 ] But one of the most of import syntactic belongingss of linguistic communication is that simple sentences can be combined in assorted ways to organize complex sentences. Syntax makes possible the preparation of looks with complex significances out of elements with simple significances. One of the specifying characteristics of human linguistic communication is its limitless nature ; that is, the figure of meaningful looks that can be produced by users of a human linguistic communication is potentially infinite, and this expressive potency comes from the combination of the basic meaningful elements with syntactic rules. Much of the involvement in linguistic communication in psychological science and cognitive scientific discipline comes from what the survey of the cognitive mechanisms underlying linguistic communication usage and acquisition can uncover about the human head. To many people the term # 8216 ; grammar # 8217 ; evokes bad memories of normative regulations learned in school, e.g. # 8216 ; wear # 8217 ; t divide infinitives! # 8217 ; Since the early portion of the 20th century, linguistics has rejected the normative tradition which underlies school grammars and focal points alternatively on depicting what users of human linguistic communication really do, non on ordering what they should make. A cardinal portion of the description of what talkers do is qualifying the grammatical ( or well-formed ) sentences of a linguistic communication and separating them from ill-formed or ( ungrammatical ) sentences. [ 22, p.53 ] Grammatical sentences are those that are in agreement with the regulations and rules of the sentence structure of a peculiar linguistic communication, while ill-formed sentences violate one or more syntactic regulations or rules. For illustration, ( 1 ) is a grammatical sentence of English, while Was waiting Bossiney for the reply would non be. This sentence is ill-formed because it violates some of the word order regulations for English, that is basic word order in English clauses is capable # 8211 ; verb # 8211 ; object, capable Bossiney precedes the predicate was waiting, and subsidiary verbs like was precede the chief verb, in this instance waiting. It is of import to observe that these are English-specific syntactic regulations. Grammatical sentences are those that are in agreement with the syntactic regulations of the linguistic communication ; this does non imply that they ever make sense semantically. For illustration, the sentence the reply was waiting Bossiney is absurd in footings of its significance, but it violates no syntactic regulations or rules of English ; so, it has precisely the same syntactic construction as ( 1 ) . Hence it is grammatical ( grammatical ) , despite being semantically odd. 1.2 Aspects of syntactic construction In the syntactic construction of sentences, two distinguishable yet interrelated facets must be distinguished. The first 1 has already been mentioned: the map of elements as capable and direct object in a sentence. # 8216 ; Subject # 8217 ; and # 8216 ; direct object # 8217 ; have traditionally been referred to as grammatical dealingss. Hence this sort of sentence structure will be referred to as # 8216 ; relational construction # 8217 ; . It includes more than merely grammatical dealingss like topic and direct object ; it besides encompasses relationships like modifier # 8211 ; modified, e.g. tall edifice or walk easy ( tall, easy = qualifier, edifice, walk = modified ) and possessor # 8211 ; possessed, e.g. Pat # 8217 ; s auto ( Pat # 8217 ; s = owner, auto = possessed ) . The 2nd facet concerns the organisation of the units which constitute sentences. A sentence does non dwell merely of a twine of words ; that is, in a sentence like The shaft of a passing cab brushed against his shoulder. [ 59 ] The instructor reads a book in the library, it is non the instance that each word is every bit related to the words adjacent to it in the twine. There is no direct relationship between brushed and a or between of and the ; a is related to cab, which it modifies, merely as the is related to shaft which it modifies. The is related to brushed merely through the shaft being the direct object of brushed. The words are organized into units which are so organized into larger units. These units are called components, and the hierarchal organisation of the units in a sentence is called its component construction. This term will be used to mention to this 2nd facet of syntactic construction. See the eight words in the sentence: ( 3 ) The shaft of a passing cab brushed against his shoulde, [ 59, p.64 ] What units are these words organized into? Intuitively, it seems clear that the article the or a goes with or organize a unit with the noun following it. Is at that place any sort of grounds beyond a native talker # 8217 ; s intuitions that this is the instance? If the article forms a unit with the noun that follows it, we would anticipate that in an alternate signifier of the same sentence the two would hold to be found together and could non be split up. Therefore, these two facets of syntactic construction are ever present in a sentence, and when one or the other is emphasized, the sentence is being described from one of the two positions. It will be seen subsequently that different grammatical phenomena seem to be more easy analyzed from one position instead than the other. 1.3 Phrases as the basic component of sentence structure In the inactive version of the sentence ( 3 ) The shaft was brushed against his shoulder by a passing cab the unit the shaft serves as topic, and the unit the passing cab is the object of the preposition by. The component composed of a noun and an article is called a noun phrase [ NP ] , e.g. by the instructor ; NPs can be really complex. Here is a list of some illustrations of Neptunium: the miss beautiful conditions this male child those cheery yearss a Canis familiaris stupid inquiry that big bike nice attempt adult females the Pacific Ocean aged work forces superb pupil David this twelvemonth Queensland judgement twenty-four hours They H2O rat They H2O rat What construction do noun phrases have in English? Based on the noun phrases listed above ( there are more complicated 1s ) , a noun phrase seems to dwell of a deciding followed by a noun, or a deciding followed by an adjectival followed by a noun, or merely a noun, or an adjectival followed by a noun. We can stand for these constructions utilizing what are called phrase construction regulations, like: NP # 8594 ; Detv N This regulation says that a noun phrase ( NP ) # 8220 ; goes to # 8221 ; ( pointer ) a deciding ( Detv ) followed by a noun ( N ) . We could therefore individually list the regulations that we would necessitate to cover all the constructions: NP # 8594 ; Detv N NP # 8594 ; Detv Adj N NP # 8594 ; N NP # 8594 ; Adj N In fact, there # 8217 ; s a simpler manner to compose all of these different signifiers with a individual regulation. There is a convention in composing phrase construction regulations so that if something is in parentheses, it can either be at that place or non. So we could rewrite our regulations merely as: NP # 8594 ; ( Detv ) ( Adj ) N This regulation says that a noun phrase consists of a noun, perchance preceded by a determiner. The preposition by and the NP following it in the sentence besides form a component in this sentence ( by a passing cab ) ; it is called a prepositional phrase [ PP ] . Some illustrations of the PP are: Some illustrations of the PP are: to the stores in a weak after the party following to the coach halt into the big kitchen nearby near those really big edifices under the tree A preposition doesn # 8217 ; Ts have to be followed by anything, so we can hold a preposition phrase that consists of merely a preposition ( John went outdoors ) . So a preposition phrase consists at least of a preposition, perchance with a noun phrase following it. We could compose this as: PP # 8594 ; P ( NP ) The verb plus the NP following it organize a unit every bit good, as shown by a sentence like A cab rolled out of inkiness, and into inkiness disappeared [ 59 ] . The component composed of a verb plus undermentioned NP is called a verb phrase [ VP ] . As with NPs, VPs can be rather complex. In our discourse, we have assorted different verb phrase structures, like the 1s we can see in the undermentioned sentences.He stood rather still, listening with all his might. [ 59, p.34 ] He ran frontward and back, felt his bosom clutched by a nauseating fright. [ 59, p.23 ] He had merely put together a orderly interruption of 23, neglecting at a Jenny. [ 59, p.23 ] The cloudy inkiness of the fog was but faintly broken by the lamps of the Red Pottle, and no form of mortal adult male or thing was in sight. [ 59, p.35 ] George turned on him, looking truly formidable, with a kind of barbarian somberness on his large face. [ 59, p.65 ] Bumley Tomm was instead a hapless thing, though he had been s o successful. [ 59, p.53 ] The look he had used was a free manus in the footings of this correspondence. [ 59, p.55 ] The verb plus the NP following it organize a unit every bit good, as shown by a sentence like A cab rolled out of inkiness, and into inkiness disappeared [ 59 ] . The component composed of a verb plus undermentioned NP is called a verb phrase [ VP ] . As with NPs, VPs can be rather complex. In our discourse, we have assorted different verb phrase structures, like the 1s we can see in the undermentioned sentences.He stood rather still, listening with all his might. [ 59, p.34 ] He ran frontward and back, felt his bosom clutched by a nauseating fright. [ 59, p.23 ] He had merely put together a orderly interruption of 23, neglecting at a Jenny. [ 59, p.23 ] The cloudy inkiness of the fog was but faintly broken by the lamps of the Red Pottle, and no form of mortal adult male or thing was in sight. [ 59, p.35 ] George turned on him, looking truly formidable, with a ki nd of barbarian somberness on his large face. [ 59, p.65 ] Bumley Tomm was instead a hapless thing, though he had been so successful. [ 59, p.53 ] The look he had used was a free manus in the footings of this correspondence. [ 59, p.55 ] So our verb phrase can hold merely a verb, or a verb followed by a PP, or a verb followed by an NP, or a verb followed by an NP and a PP, or a verb followed by an NP and more than one PP, or a verb followed by two NPs or a verb followed by two NPs and a PP, or a verb followed by two NPs and more than one PP. While these constructions are more and more complex, we can really compose them really merely with a individual phrase construction regulation: VP # 8594 ; V ( NP ) ( NP ) ( PP ) * VP > V ( NP ) ( NP ) ( PP ) * In this regulation we have explicitly written two separate NPs, instead than ( NP ) * , because ( in general ) there is a maximal of two NPs in a VP, whereas it is possible to go on adding as many PPs as you like. There are two more types of phrases, that besides necessitate to be paid attending to: adjectival phrases and adverb phrases. There are two more types of phrases, that besides necessitate to be paid attending to: adjectival phrases and adverb phrases.Adjectival phrases. Equally good as noun phrases, there are besides adjectival phrases. Adjectival phrases. Equally good as noun phrases, there are besides adjectival phrases. Why do we necessitate them? Well, see the undermentioned sentences. He was a really gifted designer [ 59 ] He was a really gifted designer [ 59 ]As an designer he was really talented As an designer he was really gifted In these two sentences, the words really happy signifier a phrase. So we have an adjectival phrase. Just as with nouns and noun phrases, we will state that whenever an adjectival appears it is inside an adjectival phrase, although it may be the lone component in the adjectival phrase. So we can compose phrase construction regulations demoing the construction of simple adjectival phrases: AdjP # 8594 ; ( Adv ) Adj Now that we # 8217 ; ve seen adjectival phrases, we need to travel back and modify our regulation for noun phrases. We said that an NP # 8594 ; ( Detv ) ( Adj ) N, but there are several jobs with that regulation. First, we # 8217 ; ve said wherever an adjectival appears it # 8217 ; s inside an AdjP, so our regulation should hold an Adj P in it, non merely an adjectival. In fact, we need an AdjP because NPs can be more complicated than the 1s we # 8217 ; ve seen so far. We can state things in English like: a really gifted designer. Here, clearly, we have an AdjP really talented inside the NP. But we besides need to spread out our NP regulation farther, because instead than merely a individual AdjP, an NP can incorporate several AdjPs: the instead celebrated really gifted architect.So we must alter our regulation for an NP to: NP # 8594 ; ( Detv ) ( AdjP ) * N NP > ( Detv ) ( AdjP ) * N The star is used to bespeak that there can be more than one of a component. Adverb phrase. Merely as we have adjectival phrases, we besides have adverb phrases, to take history of things like really rapidly, instead carefully and so on. An adverb phrase usually consists of an adverb perchance preceded by a grade adverb, e.g. : Very interesting friendly so Very interesting friendly sotruly fine-looking ever hungry truly fine-looking ever hungry instead raging improbably suffering So there is a little set of really simple phrase construction regulations, which can account for many, many English sentences. Obviously, to account for all sentences of English, we would hold to develop more complex regulations. In each of these alternate signifiers, a combination of words from the original sentence which 1 might intuitively set together in a individual unit besides occurs together as a unit, and this can be taken as grounds that they are in fact components. Using square brackets to group the words in components together, the constitutional construction of The shaft of a passing cab brushed against his shoulder may be represented as in ( 4 ) ( # 8216 ; S # 8217 ; stands for # 8216 ; sentence # 8217 ; . ) ( 4 ) [ S [ NP The [ N shaft ] ] [ P of NP [ a [ Adj go throughing ] [ N cab ] ] VP [ V brushed ] [ AdvP against ] [ NP [ P his ] [ N shoulder ] ] 1.4 Trials for phrases See the undermentioned sentence: The rich brown ambiance was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte. [ 59 ] The rich brown ambiance was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte. [ 59 ] All talkers of English would hold that in this sentence, some of the words travel together with each other more closely than others. For illustration, the words the rich brown atmosphere seem to travel together more closely than, say atmosphere was curious. Likewise in the sign of the zodiac seems to travel together as a unit ( frequently referred to as a component ) , more than the sign of the zodiac of. For our native linguistic communication we could trust on intuition to make up ones mind about phrases. But that is non traveling to work if we have to depict a linguistic communication which we don # 8217 ; t cognize really good. What sorts of formal trials can we happen to make up ones mind whether something is a phrase or non? Substitution trial Substitution trial One of the simplest trials for phrases is what is called the permutation trial. If we can replace a set of words with a individual other word, without altering the overall significance, so we can state that those words form a phrase. For illustration, looking back at the earlier sentence, we can replace assorted of the phrases for individual words: The rich brown ambiance was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte It was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte that it was the rich brown atmosphere. The rich brown ambiance was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte The rich brown ambiance was curious at that place. We can see from this that the words the rich brown atmosphere organize a phrase, as do the words back suites, the sign of the zodiac and in the sign of the zodiac. Substitution besides can be seen with what is called anaphora, where a individual point replacements for an earlier mentioned point, in inquiry and reply sequences or in long sentences. For illustration, we could hold a inquiry and reply sequence: There s no money in that, he said. # 8216 ; Yes, he went insolvent, replied Nicholas. [ 59, p.66 ] There s no money in that, he said. ‘Yes, he went insolvent, replied Nicholas. [ 59, p.66 ] In the 2nd sentence here, the word insolvent has replaced no money, demoing us that no money must be a phrase. While permutation normally works on the footing of a individual word, it is besides possible to replace utilizing the phrase do so or so do. We can see this kind of permutation in: Old Jolyon s manus trembled in its thin lavender baseball mitt, and so did his boy # 8217 ; s. [ 59, p.45 ] Old Jolyon s manus trembled in its thin lavender baseball mitt, and so did his son’s. [ 59, p.45 ] So the words manus trembled in our original sentence signifier a phrase. Cleft trial Cleft trial Equally good as permutation, another trial we can utilize to see if something is a phrase is what is called the clefting. Cleft sentences have the signifier It is/was/will be ____ that/who ____ The of import thing for a dissected trial is to take the original sentence, and seek seting it into this frame, without altering it in any manner except for taking one portion of it out and seting it in the first slot, and seting the remainder of the sentence in the 2nd slot. For illustration: The rich brown ambiance was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte It was the rich brown atmosphere that was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte Old Jolyon s manus trembled in its thin lavender baseball mitt. [ 59.p.23 ] It was Old Jolyon s manus that trembled in its thin lavender baseball mitt. When using the cleft trial, it is of import non to alter anything about the sentence, except for taking one portion out and seting it between it is/was/will be and that/who. If it is possible to split a sentence, so the portion of the sentence which occurs between it is/was/will be and that/who forms a phrase. Note that if it is possible to split a group of words, so that group of words signifiers a phrase ; but merely because you can # 8217 ; t cleft something, that doesn # 8217 ; t mean that it isn # 8217 ; t a phrase. For illustration, we know that in our original sentence the words the rich brown atmosphere organize a phrase, but we can # 8217 ; t cleft it: It was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte that the rich brown atmosphere. Motion trials Movement trials Phrases frequently behave as units for assorted motion operations, with the full phrase traveling together. For illustration, we could travel the phrase on that shelf in our original sentence: The rich brown ambiance was peculiar to endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte. To endorse suites in the sign of the zodiac of a Forsyte was peculiar the rich brown atmosphere. A specific instance of motion is the formation of a inactive sentences. As we can see the set of words the key and the words in the lock in our sentence must each be a phrase because each set of words moves together under passivization: Old Jolyon turned the key quietly in the lock [ 59, p.58 ] ( active sentence ) The key was quietly turned in the lock [ 59 ] ( inactive sentence ) Noting the nesting of components within components in this sentence, e.g. the NP the lock is a component of the PP in the lock which is a component of the VP turned in the lock. At the beginning of this subdivision it was noted that the two facets of syntactic construction, relational construction and constitutional construction, are # 8216 ; distinguishable yet interrelated # 8217 ; , and it is possible now to see how this is the instance. For illustration, a VP was described as being composed of a verb and the undermentioned NP, but it could instead be characterized as affecting the verb and its direct object. Similarly, a PP is composed of a preposition and its object. NPs, on the other manus, involve qualifiers, and consequently the relation between the and lock could be described as one of modifier # 8211 ; modified. 1.5 Lexical classs In the treatment of the components of sentences, mention has been made to nouns and noun phrases, verbs and verb phrases, and prepositions and prepositional phrases. Nouns, verbs and prepositions are traditionally referred to as # 8216 ; parts of address # 8217 ; or # 8216 ; word classes # 8217 ; ; in modern-day linguistics they are termed lexical classs. The most of import lexical classs are noun, verb, adjectival, adverb and adposition, which subsumes prepositions and postpositions. In traditional grammar, lexical classs are given fanciful definitions, i.e. they are characterized in footings of their semantic content [ 9, pp.25-67 ] . For illustration, noun is defined as # 8216 ; the name of a individual, topographic point or thing # 8217 ; , verb is defined as an # 8216 ; action word # 8217 ; , and adjectival is defined as # 8216 ; a word showing a belongings or property # 8217 ; . In modern linguistics, nevertheless, they are defined morphosyntactically in footings of their grammatical belongingss. Nouns may be classified in a figure of ways. There is a cardinal contrast between nouns that refer unambiguously to peculiar entities or persons and those that do non ; the best illustration of the first sort of noun is a proper name, e.g. Sam, Elizabeth, Paris or London, and nouns of this type are referred to as proper nouns. Nouns which do non mention to alone persons or entities are called common nouns, e.g. Canis familiaris, tabular array, fish, auto, pencil, H2O. One of the of import differences between proper and common nouns in a linguistic communication like English is that common nouns usually take an article, while proper nouns do non, e.g. : The male child left versus *The Sam left ( californium. *Boy left versus Sam left ) . Common nouns may be divided into mass nouns and count nouns. Count nouns, as the name implies, denote denumerable entities, e.g. seven chairs, six pencils, three Canis familiariss, many autos. Mass nouns, on the other manus, are non readily countable in their primary senses, e.g. *two Waterss, *four butters, *six snows. In order to do them denumerable, it is necessary to add what is sometimes called a # 8216 ; step word # 8217 ; , which delimits a specific sum of the substance, e.g. two glasses/bottles/drops of H2O, four pats/sticks of butter, six spadeful of snow. Measur e words can be used with count nouns merely when they are plural, e.g. *six boxes of pencil versus six boxes of pencils, *two cups of peanut versus three jars of peanuts. Pronouns are closely related to nouns, as they both function as NPs. Pronouns are traditionally characterized as # 8216 ; substitutes # 8217 ; for nouns or as # 8216 ; standing for # 8217 ; nouns, e.g. John went to the shop, and he bought some milk, in which he substitutes or stands for John in the 2nd clause. This, nevertheless, is true merely of third-person pronouns like he, she, it, or they ; it is non true of first-person pronouns like I or second-person pronouns like you. First- and second-person pronouns refer to or index the talker and addressee in a address event and do non replace or stand for a noun. Verbs can similarly be categorized along a figure of dimensions, such as: individual, figure ( in Modern English there are but few signifier bespeaking them in the man-made signifiers of the verb. These are ( 1 ) .the 3rdindividual remarkable Present Indefinite Indicative ; ( 2 ) the Future Indefinite tense ; ( 3 ) the suppletive signifiers of the verb to be for different individuals of remarkable and plural ) , aspect ( perfect and progressive ) , voice ( active and inactive ) , temper ( declarative, imperative and subjunctive ) and tense ( there are four groups of tenses: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous ; each of these signifiers includes four tenses: Present, Past, Future and Futute-in-the-Past. Therefore there are 16 tenses in English. ) Decisions to Separate I 1.Syntax is the subdivision of grammar covering with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to demo connexions of intending within the sentence. 2. The chief object of sentence structure is sentence building. 3. One of the most obvious yet of import ways in which linguistic communications differ is the order of the chief elements in a sentence. 4. The basic word order in English clauses is capable # 8211 ; verb # 8211 ; object, articles precede the noun they modify, and subsidiary verbs precede the chief verb. These are English-specific syntactic regulations. 5. The connexion between the words in a sentence is realized through the alterations in their signifiers and these alterations in the signifier of the words to bespeak their map in the sentence are called # 8216 ; inflexions # 8217 ; , and the survey of the formation of words and how they may alter their signifier is called morphology. 6. Syntax investigates simple sentences, every bit good as their combinations called complex sentences. 7. A cardinal portion of the description of what talkers do is qualifying the grammatical ( or well-formed ) sentences of a linguistic communication and separating them from ill-formed or ( ungrammatical ) sentences. 8. Two interconnected facets of sentence structure: relational construction and constitutional construction. 9. Wordss organisation into phrases. Types of phrases. 10. In order to look into if word combination is a phrase, the trials for phrases are to be done. 11. Lexical classs. Their semantic content. Part II. English Verb. Verb Phrases 2.1 Peculiarities of the Verb The term # 8220 ; verb # 8221 ; is used in two senses: 1. the verb is one of the elements used in the clause construction, like the topic and the object. 2. a verb is a member of a word category, like a noun, and an adjective. The two senses are related in this manner: a verb phrase consists of one or more verbs ( sense 2 ) e.g. linked, is doing, can believe, might be go forthing in the sentences below ; the verb phrase operates as the verb ( sense 1 ) in the clause, e.g. : They linked custodies. He is doing a noise. I can believe you. She will be go forthing shortly. Verbs are the really big lexical word category in English, and were traditionally called # 8216 ; making # 8217 ; words when taught to immature kids. The lexical verb category is more inclusive than the label implies as there are verbs ( for illustration have, be ) which do non depict making, but being, or provinces, instead than procedures and still others that describe events with no knowing action behind them ( for illustration dice, autumn ) . In order to group these words together, so, we need to place their formal nd functional characteristics. The inflectional morphemes can be used to modify the verb in English. These include the present-tense, third-person remarkable morpheme, which is written as -s in most instances ; the past tense morpheme, written as -ed in all regular verbs in English ; and the progressive signifier, which is written as -ing for all English verbs. Many minor sentences, and many spoken 1s, consist of a individual word that is non needfully a verb: No! Natalie! Me. Singing. Slowly. It is possible to work out likely contexts in which these words will happen as vocalizations in their ain right. However, they must hold a context in order to hold a feasible significance. With the exclusion of these and other minor vocalization types, clauses in English need to hold a verb in them. This verb may be the caput of a verb phrase, but it may stand entirely as a verb phrase excessively. The undermentioned clauses have a individual verb operation in the predicator function: Young Jolyon looked round the room. [ 59, p.65 ] The old face looked worn and excavate once more [ 59, p.34 ] His eyes roved from bottle to bottle. [ 59, p.74 ] Two ladies advanced. [ 59, p.44 ] The fastness of Swithin s oculus entirely betrayed emotion [ 59, p.52 ] The fastness of Swithin s oculus entirely betrayed emotion [ 59, p.52 ] As a word category verbs can be divided into three chief classs, harmonizing to their map within the verb phrase: the unfastened category of Full Verbs ( or lexical verbs ) , and the really little closed categories of Primary Verbs, and Modal Auxiliary Verbs. Since the primary verbs and the average subsidiary verbs are closed categories, we can name them in full. Full Verbs believe, follow, like, see, # 8230 ; Primary Verbs be, hold, make Modal Auxiliaries can, may, shall, will, must, could, would, # 8230 ; Modal Auxiliaries can, may, shall, will, must, could, would, †¦ If there is merely one verb in the verb phrase, it is the Main Verb. If there is more than one verb, the concluding 1 is the chief verb, and the one or more verbs that go before it are aides. For illustration transmit is the chief verb in this sentence, and might and be are aides: # 8230 ; to whom he might convey the money he saved, # 8230 ; [ 59, p.66 ] †¦ to whom he might convey the money he saved, †¦ [ 59, p.66 ] Of the three categories of verbs, the full verbs can move merely every bit chief verbs, the average aides can move merely as subsidiary verbs, and the primary verbs can move either as chief verbs or as subsidiary verbs. Let us look into the subsidiary verbs closer. Auxiliary verbs. Aides have small or no lexical significance. They are # 8216 ; helper # 8217 ; verbs, in the sense that they help to organize complex verb signifiers. In making so they express either a grammatical impression ( like # 8216 ; inactive # 8217 ; , # 8216 ; progressive # 8217 ; or # 8216 ; tense # 8217 ; ) or one or more average thoughts. This is non to state that aides are barren of significance, but their significances are more conventional ( i.e. more # 8216 ; skeletal # 8217 ; , more # 8216 ; abstract # 8217 ; , less # 8216 ; full # 8217 ; ) than those of lexical verbs. Within the aides we can do a differentiation between two categories: grammatical aides and average aides. The former, which are sometimes referred to as # 8216 ; primary aides # 8217 ; , have a strictly grammatical map: 1. the # 8216 ; tense subsidiary # 8217 ; have, which is used in organizing perfect tense signifiers ; 2. the # 8216 ; aspect subsidiary # 8217 ; be, which is used for constructing progressive verb orms ; 3. the # 8216 ; voice subsidiary # 8217 ; be, which is used in the passive ; 4. the # 8216 ; circumlocutious aide # 8217 ; make, which is used as a # 8216 ; dummy # 8217 ; ( pro-form ) when a VP that does non incorporate an subsidiary ( e. g. love her ) is used in a building that requires one ( e. g. I don # 8217 ; t love her, Do you love her? , I do love her, etc. ) Next, there are the # 8216 ; modal auxiliaries # 8217 ; : can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, ought to, will, and would. These aides express particular sunglassess of significance, such as will, possibility, permission, necessity, purpose, duty, outlook, illation, ability, finding, etc. The average aides differ semantically from the first group in that they add lexical significance instead than carry through a grammatical map. However, they still have less concrete, and therefore more widely applicable, significances than most lexical verbs. This wider pertinence explains why aides form a comparatively little set when compared with lexical verbs. Because an aide does non hold a full lexical significance, it can non be used without a chief ( lexical ) verb, except in # 8216 ; codification # 8217 ; , where the aide is used as pro-form for an full verb phrase ( as in If I do the thing, I will make it exhaustively, but I must hold a free manus ) . In other words, an subsidiary can non be the lone or last verb signifier in the VP ( except in # 8216 ; codification # 8217 ; ) . In the undermentioned illustration the chief verbs are italicized while the aides are underlined: Because an aide does non hold a full lexical significance, it can non be used without a chief ( lexical ) verb, except in ‘code’ , where the aide is used as pro-form for an full verb phrase ( as in If I do the thing, I will make it exhaustively, but I must hold a free manus ) . In other words, an subsidiary can non be the lone or last verb signifier in the VP ( except in ‘code’ ) . In the undermentioned illustration the chief verbs a re italicized while the aides are underlined: [ # 8220 ; What did he make last dark? # 8221 ; ] # 8220 ; He { studied / worked / may hold slept / could/had to/ would} . # 8221 ; Unlike lexical verbs, aides have the alleged # 8216 ; NICE-properties # 8217 ; . # 8216 ; NICE # 8217 ; is an acronym ( coined by Huddleston 1976 ) consisting of the initial letters of the footings negation, inversion, codification and accent. The mention is to the four instances in which the English VP requires an subsidiary. If there is no subsidiary, the # 8216 ; circumlocutious aide # 8217 ; make has to be added. In that instance we say that the lexical verb requires # 8216 ; do-support # 8217 ; . In other words, the statement that # 8216 ; aides have the NICE-properties # 8217 ; means that they do non unite with the circumlocutious subsidiary do in clauses made negative by the usage of non, in clauses affecting subject-auxiliary inversion, in codification and in instances of accent. By contrast, clauses without an subsidiary demand # 8216 ; do-support # 8217 ; ( i.e. the interpolation of bash ) in these four instances. Comparison: He went / He didn # 8217 ; t travel / Did he travel? / Yes he did / He did travel. He will travel / He won # 8217 ; t travel / Will he travel? / Yes he will / He will travel. The subsidiary verbs are made up of the modals ( may, must, might and so on ) , have ( perfective ) and be ( progressive and inactive ) . Here it is deserving observing some of the utilizations of the subsidiary map: to build inquiries, to supply accent and to transport negation. Looking at inquiries foremost, the first aide in a verb phrase can be put before the topic in order, to inquire a inquiry: She will be coming. Will she be coming? The emphasized usage of the aide is connected with emphasis and modulation forms, but it is once more the first aide that carries the excess accent of an emphasized version: Will you inquire Mr. Bosinney, and I will acquire immature Flippard. [ 59, p.66 ] I will name for you and your immature adult male at seven oclock. [ 59, p.23 ] A Forsyte will necessitate good, if non delicate eating, but a Dartie will revenue enhancement the resources of a Crown and Sceptre [ 59, p.34 ] His drink, excessively, will necessitate to be carefully provided ; there is much drink in this state not good sufficiency for a Dartie ; he will hold the best. [ 59, p.52 ] Will you ask Mr. Bosinney, and I will acquire immature Flippard. [ 59, p.66 ] I will name for you and your immature adult male at seven oclock. [ 59, p.23 ] A Forsyte will necessitate good, if non delicate eating, but a Dartie will revenue enhancement the resources of a Crown and Sceptre [ 59, p.34 ] His drink, excessively, will necessitate to be carefully provided ; there is much drink in this state not good sufficiency for a Dartie ; he will hold the best. [ 59, p.52 ] The negation of English sentences is normally carried by the verb phrase in the signifier of a negative atom, which intervenes in the verb phrase after the first subsidiary and before the undermentioned aide or lexical verb: If you exceed that amount by every bit much as 50 lbs, I will non keep you responsible Jane hasn # 8217 ; t been hurt. [ 59, p.33 ] He knew it was done that he might non experience she came because of her dead lover. [ 59, p.23 ] The feeling of shame at what might be called running after him was smothered by the apprehension that he might non be at that place, that she might non see him after all 59, p.35 ] He knew it was done that he might non experience she came because of her dead lover. [ 59, p.23 ] The feeling of shame at what might be called running after him was smothered by the apprehension that he might non be at that place, that she might non see him after all 59, p.35 ] As these illustrations show, the negative atom is frequently attached to the subsidiary verb, though in the instance of might the decreased signifier ( mightn # 8217 ; T ) is less common now. All three of these particular utilizations of the subsidiary require some attending to the first aide of a verb phrase. This may be a average aide or it may be hold or be. Whichever it is, this verb is known as the # 8216 ; operator # 8217 ; because it has the particular maps described supra. In the absence of an subsidiary ( that is, where there is merely a lexical verb ) , the silent person operator # 8211 ; the verb do # 8211 ; is used alternatively: But I suppose you feel it much as I do when I portion with a image a kind of kid? [ 59, p.34 ] But if you ask me how I do it, I answer, because I m a Forsyte. [ 59, p.67 ] But I suppose you feel it much as I do when I portion with a image a kind of kid? [ 59, p.34 ] But if you ask me how I do it, I answer, because I m a Forsyte. [ 59, p.67 ] The silent person operator, so, performs the three maps of the other aides, but it does non transport any significance of its ain to add to the verb phrase. Though some verbs have a position intermediate between that of chief verbs and that of subsidiary verbs. Sometimes the chief verb ( and possibly the other words excessively ) is understood from the context, so that lone aides are present in the verb phrase: I can # 8217 ; t state them but you can. [ i.e. # 8216 ; can state them # 8217 ; ] Your parents may non hold suspected anything but your sister may hold. [ i.e. # 8216 ; may hold suspected something # 8217 ; ] . There besides multi-word verbs, which consist of a verb and one or more other words turn on, look up, take topographic point, take advantage, put up with, # 8230 ; Let us see at the single signifiers of lexical verbs in English and how they function. The first of the two clauses above besides organize complete sentences, whereas the 3rd, 4th and fifth are lone portion of an vocalization. These uncomplete vocalizations are illustrations of low-level clauses, which we shall look into in a ulterior subdivision. We are utilizing them here merely to show the usage of peculiar signifiers of verb: infinite signifiers. These signifiers, frequently known as the -ing signifier, the -en signifier and the i- signifier, are besides called the progressive signifier, the perfective signifier and the infinitive signifier. These signifiers can be portion of full verb phrases that function as the predicator in a complete clause. On their ain, nevertheless, they do non associate to the topic in a clear manner ( for illustration by an stoping that indicates a individual ) and they do non set up the tense of the verb as either present or past. Note how they need aides to set up such facets of the significance of the predicator: Who shall state of what he was believing? [ 59, p.44 ] And now you have your boy and June coming back you will be so happy. [ 59, p.24 ] And now you have your boy and June coming back you will be so happy. [ 59, p.24 ] I shall sit in the Sun with a drink in my manus. [ 59, p.20 ] Lexical verbs that do non necessitate an subsidiary verb in order to map in chief clauses are known as finite signifiers. They include the present tense signifier, which is usually identical from the infinitive signifier in footings of holding no morphological postfix ( for illustration gimmick, sing ) , the third-person present tense signifier, which usually adds an -s to establish signifiers, and the past tense signifier, which adds -ed to regular verbs. Table 3.1 shows some illustrations of all the signifiers of English lexical verbs. Table 3.1 Citation signifier Interruption Play Singing Forget Present tense interruption drama sing forget Present 3rd individual interruptions dramas sings forgets Past tense broke played American ginseng forgot Progressive participial interrupting playing singing burying Perfective participial broken played Sung forgotten Infinitive interruption drama sing forget The most common form of signifiers in English verbs is the 1 represented n the tabular array by drama. There are efficaciously merely four different signifiers ( drama, dramas, playing, played ) , but because other common, but irregular, verbs distinguish, for illustration, the past tense ( -ed ) from the perfective signifier ( -en ) , the regular verbs are besides treated as though these signifiers were different. The most common form of signifiers in English verbs is the 1 represented n the tabular array by drama. There are efficaciously merely four different signifiers ( drama, dramas, playing, played ) , but because other common, but irregular, verbs distinguish, for illustration, the past tense ( -ed ) from the perfective signifier ( -en ) , the regular verbs are besides treated as though these signifiers were different. The irregular signifiers tend to belong to common verbs derived from Old English, instead than those with Romance linguistic communication influences, such as Gallic. Because they are really common they have non changed to fit the sheer measure of verbs with a form such as drama, although there is some grounds that some such thing is go oning. If you think about the manner that people these yearss frequently muddle Sungs and American ginseng and round and rang, it seems that the differentiation between past tense and perfective markers is less distinct than in the yesteryear. However, although the two signifiers might be unifying in irregular verbs excessively, they are non traveling towards fiting the regular verbs, which would ensue in signifiers such as *singed and *ringed. The subclasses of lexical verb that can be identified tend to depend on the context in which they occur. Whilst the traditional grammars distinguished between transitive and intransitive verbs, we find it utile to separate farther classs, depending on the clause structures in which they typically occur. The intransitive verb will non be found with an object, and therefore will happen n topic and predicator constructions: I # 8217 ; m deceasing. The transitive verb occurs with an object in subject-predicator-object constructions: She hates you. Ditransitive verbs occur with both indirect and direct objects: They gave me a beautiful nowadays. There are besides subclasses of verb that tend to happen with mandatory adverbials: John went place and I put the coffin nail back in the package. Two further of import subclasses of verb are intensive verbs ( such as be ) that occur with capable complements ( She was truly tired ) , and those which occur with objects and object complements: ( You make me happy ) . The intensive verbs have a peculiar semantic consequence in that they invoke being ( there is a tree ) and equality ( she is my girl ) . These subcategories of verb are non watertight and some verbs can happen in a scope of grammatical contexts. However it is utile to believe in footings of verbs typically happening in certain clause constructions. 2.2 Verbs within Syntax and Morphology What is the indispensable belongings that makes verbs behave otherwise from nouns nd adjectives in morphology and sentence structure? There is really an obvious starting-point in the widespread acknowledgment that verbs are the quintessential predicates. They are inherently unsaturated looks that hold of something else, and therefore the karyon around which sentences are typically built. Many linguists of different schools have recognized the significance of this. Among the formalists, Jackendoff ( 1977 ) partly defines verbs with the characteristic # 8220 ; +subject # 8221 ; ( although this does non separate them from nouns, in his position ) . Among the functionalists Buechler [ 16, p.54 ] , identifies predi-cation as the matter-of-fact map that provides the external motive for the class verb. The precise version of this intuition stated in ( 3 ) ( 3 ) Ten is a verb if and merely if X is a lexical class and X has a specifier. Whether an point takes a specifier or non is therefore an of import characterizing characteristic for the functional classs. ( 3 ) claims that this belongings subdivides the lexical classs excessively. Those lexical classs that take a specifier are verbs ; those that do non are nouns and adjectives. The manner a verb comes to hold a specifier is slightly different from the manner ost functional classs do, nevertheless. Tenses and complementizers get their specifiers by motion: some component contained inside their complement moves to go the specifier of the phrase. This is non the instance for verbs. Rather, the specifier of a verb normally comes from direct combination with some other phrase that is constructed independently. In Chomsky # 8217 ; s footings, verbs typically get specifiers from # 8220 ; External Merge, # 8221 ; whereas tenses and complementizers get specifiers by # 8220 ; Internal Merge. # 8221 ; In pattern, this means that verbs normally assign a thematic function to the phrase that is their specifier. Following Chomsky # 8217 ; s [ 21, p.56-366 ] version of Hale and Keyser ( 1993 ) , there are two spheres in which this happens ( besides Bowers [ 1993 ] and others ) . A verb that takes an AP or PP complement assigns a theme function to its specifier: ( 5 ) a.Cigar made [ VP him [ experience weak [ ] ] ( him is subject of feel ) [ 59 ] A verb that takes an NP complement assigns an agent function to its specifier: ( 6 ) . It made [ VP him [ sick to look at them ] ] ( him is agent of sick ) A verb can besides take a VP complement, in which instance it once more assigns an agent ole to its specifier. The caput of the lower VP about ever combines with the caput of the higher VP, deducing a surface representation with lone one spelled-out verb: Examples in which a individual verb appears to take two complements are ever to be analyzed this manner, as dwelling of two verbal projections that take one comple-ment each, following Levinson [ 36 ] Palmer [ 41 ] , and utilizing Chomsky # 8217 ; s [ 21 ] nomenclature, we can name the higher verbal place in constructions like ( 5 ) ( in lower instance ) , and the lower place V ( in upper instance ) . Both, nevertheless, measure up as verbs, every bit long as they have lexical content, given the definition in ( 1 ) The constructions in ( 5 ) ( 6 ) besides exist without an overt NP, AP, or PP complement o the verb: ( 7 ) a Cigar made [ him [ feel # 8211 ; ] ] [ 59, p.76 ] B It made [ him [ sick # 8211 ; ] ] [ 59, p.76 ] So the verbs have a covert complement in these instances, so that the subject and agent statements are still in specifier places. Hutchby and Wooffitt [ 30 ] really do a slightly stronger claim: they say that these phrase-structural constellations are the lone 1s in which NPs that bear subject and agent functions can be found. Let us see the followers: So the verbs have a covert complement in these instances, so that the subject and agent statements are still in specifier places. Hutchby and Wooffitt [ 30 ] really do a slightly stronger claim: they say that these phrase-structural constellations are the lone 1s in which NPs that bear subject and agent functions can be found. Let us see the followers: Agent and subject functions can merely be assigned to specifier places. This is a subpart of the Uniformity of Theta Role Assignment Hypothesis ( UTAH ) of Baker ( 1988a ) , which Hutchby and Wooffitt [ 30, p.543 ] seek to deduce. ( 6 ) is weaker than Hutchby and Wooffitt # 8217 ; s position, the agent function merely is the [ # 8722 ; # 8722 ; V VP ] constellation, they believe, and the theme function is the [ # 8722 ; # 8722 ; V AP/PP ] constellation. ( In this, they were presumptively inspired by Carter # 8217 ; s [ 19, p.45 ] position that thematic functions are designated places in a conceptual construction. ) The definitional position seems excessively strong, nevertheless. ( 6 ) is strong plenty to hold effects: taken together with ( 4 ) , it implies that simple nouns and adjectives can neer delegate agent or subject thematic functions. It is alluring to seek to unite ( 4 ) and ( 6 ) and do it the specifying belongings of verbs that they assign agent and theme theta-roles.3 This would be a error, nevertheless. First, if these peculiar thematic functions were built into the definition, one would hold to be certain one could separate them from other thematic functions in a dependable manner. This is a notoriously hard endeavor, the thematic functions holding clear cardinal cases but fuzzed boundaries. More significantly, there are a few verbs that do non delegate any thematic function to their specifier. Verbs like seem and appear are the clearest instance ; possibly weather predicates are another. But even though these verbs have no thematic function to delegate to a specifier, they must still hold a specifier, in the signifier of the redundant pronoun it: ( 8 ) a He made [ ( it ) seem/appear that he was happy ] B Sowing the clouds made [ # 8727 ; ( it ) rain /snow ] This may look like a distinctive feature of English, since many linguistic communications do non necessitate an open pronoun with these verbs. However, this is merely because many linguistic communications neer require open pronouns, frequently because the person/number/gender characteristics of the pronoun are adequately expressed in the verbal morphology, as in Spanish and Italian. Not surprisingly, the needed topic of the verb shows up non as a redundant pronoun, but as a redundant capable understanding in these linguistic communications. Auxiliary verbs besides illustrate this same point. These are verbs that do non delegate any thematic functions, but express merely aspectual information, such as the imperfect or the perfect: a The box broke unfastened b The box has broken unfastened. c The box is interrupting unfastened. The nominal the box is thematically related merely to the verb interruption in these illustrations, and semantically the facet has scope over the full contingency, including the topic. Therefore, on strictly semantic evidences, one might anticipate the constructions in ( 5 ) . ( 5 ) a has [ VP the box [ broken unfastened ] ] B is [ VP the box [ interrupting unfastened ] ] But this is non what we find on the surface. Have and is are ( nonprototypical ) verbs, and as such they must hold a specifier. In this instance, they get one, non by theta-role assignment, nor by redundant interpolation, but by NP-movement: ( 6 ) a [ VP the box has [ VP [ broken unfastened ] ] B [ VP the box is [ VP T [ interrupting unfastened ] ] Again, this is non a distinctive feature of English. The semantically plausible Aux # 8211 ; Subject # 8211 ; Verb # 8211 ; Object order in ( 6 ) is non found in any SVO linguistic communication, based on the information from 530 linguistic communications summarized in Julien ( 2000 ) . Orders like ( 5 ) are found in the Celtic linguistic communications, but these are crucially VSO linguistic communications, where there is independent grounds that all verbs ( non merely aides ) move to the left of their topics. The most ambitious facet of supporting ( 1 ) is non to demo that all verbs have specifiers, but to demo that the other lexical classs can non hold them. Nouns and adjectives surely can look without specifiers, as seen in ( 6 ) ( 7 ) a Water is reviewing. ( specifierless N ) B Cold H2O is reviewing. ( specifierless A ) But they can besides be used predicatively, in which instance they seem to take topics merely every bit much as verbs do. I illustrated the subject-taking belongingss of assorted verbs in English by implanting them under the causative verb brand, because brand selects a bare VP complement ( I assume ) , with no obvious functional caput. Therefore, in this context we can be comparatively certain that it is the verb that requires a topic, non strain or some other functional caput. But NPs and APs can besides be embedded under brand, in which instance they excessively are preceded by a topic: ( 8 ) a The chemist took a H and O mixture and made [ # ( it ) H2O ] . B Then she put the H2O into the icebox to do [ ( it ) cold ] . This elusive contrast between verbs and other classs has no obvious connexion to the superficial inflectional belongingss of verbs, but it does propose that there is a structural difference between verbs and predicate nouns/adjectives. A theory that starts with the premise that merely verbs take topics straight gives us immediate purchase on this paradigm. This elusive contrast between verbs and other classs has no obvious connexion to the superficial inflectional belongingss of verbs, but it does propose that there is a structural difference between verbs and predicate nouns/adjectives. A theory that starts with the premise that merely verbs take topics straight gives us immediate purchase on this paradigm. So we encountered the different word categories of English and looked at the internal construction of words. In the undermentioned portion we shall see constructions that are normally made up of more than one word, and expression at how they are put together out of the word classes we have already examined. Here, so, we shall be sing the ways in which words are combined to do phrases, and look into the construction of clauses, sentences and vocalizations. 2.3 Verb phrases. Their composing and maps Alternate definitions of # 8216 ; verb give voice # 8217 ; Alternative definitions of ‘verb phrase’ Verb phrase is that portion of the predicate component that does non incorporate optional adverbials. ( In many instances the predicate consists of a VP merely. ) We will lodge to this definition in this work. However, it may be utile to cognize that some lingual plants use the term in a different sense. Some use it in the sense of our # 8216 ; predicate ( component ) # 8217 ; , i.e. to mention to the amount of all those components of the clause that do non belong to the topic NP. Others use the term in a much narrower sense, to denote no more than the chief verb and any aides attach toing it. Therefore seen, the VP of He may hold been reading a book is may hold been reading ( instead than may hold been reading a book ) . In the present work a twine like may hold been reading or will read will be referred to as a # 8216 ; verb organize # 8217 ; . A verb signifier consists either of a verb ( in the signifier of a participial or infinitive ) plus one or more aides ( e. g. will see, would hold seen ) or of a ( normally inflected ) verb merely ( as

Research Population

Question: What is Research Popuation? Explain. Answer: Research population is the target population on which a study or research is conducted through various different methods in order to reach a conclusion from the data generated. It is for the benefit of the population directly or indirectly. But, due to very large size of research population, it is not feasible to test all the individuals of the population since it will take too much time and will be expensive as well. So the researchers take few individuals from the research population (a subset of the set of target population) using sampling techniques. These techniques help to take a sample as per the requirements of the type of research that is to be conducted (Boyd, 2015). The research population has some common characteristics that bind them together. There are various sources from which a sample is created. A set of all these sources is called a Sampling frame from which the sample is selected. With the help of sampling frames, researchers are able to select the sample populati on from the target population that will be tested in the research or survey (StatPac Inc., 2014). A sampling frame should have the following characteristics:Completeness: A frame should be complete in a sense that all the individuals of the target population should be covered in the frame. In case we are missing some of the individuals, the result will not be accurate and it will become pointless to waste time and resources on that research. For example, a survey is to be conducted on the number of children born in a particular area in a particular time period and we are counting only the ones which are born in some medical facilities. Then there can be chances that some are born at home or somewhere else but not a medical facility. So in such a case, these children will not be part of the sample and hence the results will be different from what it should be. Also, there can be another kind of inadequate coverage, which poses problems for the surveys in which all the target populati on is considered from which the sample is to be taken, but some of the population may not be in town at that time of survey and so the data collected will be inadequate. For example, if some country wants to have a national survey of all the house holds, but the team doing it is not considering the ones who are living in some institutions, boat houses or nomads. So, more frames are required to cover these people also inorder to get proper data for analysis. Accuracy: to err is to human. It is a well known saying that humans do mistakes and its a very natural tendency. We want our frame to be accurate, based on which our whole survey is based. Both trends have shown that mistakes are more in frames than in survey. A frame should include all the elements of the target population and there should be no repetition. For example, if we are listing all the organizations with 100 + employees, than any entry with 99 employees will be wrong. Also, all the organizations with 100+ should be in list without missing anyone (Royal Geographical Society, 2016). Current frame: This characteristic is very important for a frame because only then a frame is able to fulfill the characteristics of accuracy and completeness. In case a frame is obsolete, that means that the data will be out dated and the information gathered from it is obsolete as well. The best example of such a frame is one done for population census. There is every probability that new residents have come due to new construction or may be some people have migrated to other places. So, the data can give no useful information on the current population of the place. Categories of frames used in sampling Area frames: An area sampling frame, countrys geographical units are arranged hierarchically. The hierarchy can be in a order like country, state, district, village, ward, block etc. They can also be further subdivided as area leaders (Kruse, 2009). For the purpose of the survey, some important characteristics required are: The entire land of the area where survey will be conducted should be covered. Boundaries should be well defined. Some population figures should be available for the research. At times when national survey is done, coverage of the total land of the nations geographic area is vital. Only then researchers will be able to do authentic surveys based on it. Also, well marked boundaries will bring immense help to create genuine data (Buskirk, 2016). Whenever an area frame is to be generated, the starting is from the household surveys that leads to the nations population census. EAs are formed to more subdivide the area for the convenience of the survey takers An area f rame is nothing but a list of all the elements of that area under survey. Because, it starts with making a list of different units in a population which are required in case of survey samples. List frames. A list frame, as its name suggests has a list of the research population. In every country, there is a list of household surveys which is made when a census is taken. It contains a list of all the households of that country which are arranged geographically as discussed above . When a recent census is done, it is very accurate and updated. It is so because it has all the properties of accuracy, completeness and updated. Since, it is arranged geographically, its stratification is very simple, if survey is to be conducted in any geographical area of the nation. In case some survey is to be conducted, then its the best time to take a sample and conduct a survey because the data is fresh and so, the research done will be very accurate and bring accurate results.Multiple frames: Till n ow, we have discussed many sampling frames, which are used on target population for various purposes. Sometimes, we can use them in combination, usually two of them or it can be more than two also. Typical dual frame in household surveys: Just to make it simple and easy to understand, we will discuss it by the principals of multi frame designs. In this, the area population of general frame is combined with the list frame of individuals who are part of the target population on which survey is done. For instance, in an unemployment survey, which is based on an area frame of households along with the list frame that contains people who are currently unemployed and have registered their names in ministry (The Regents of the University of Michigan, 2010). According to me, to get a sample for clean edge razor, our company should go to area frames because then we will have the list of males and females of all the parts of the area where we want to release our product. Then, we can take out the list of males from it. Also, this is based on different areas and our product is for fastidious groomers which look for superior products. So, if they look for such products means they can afford it and so, the areas which are expensive to live can be targeted. The list of areas that can be taken from area frames. Task 2Main Sampling approaches can be classified into one of the two categories:à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § Probability Sampling: Many times when we are short of time and money to work on everything in the target population, we randomly select some to work on. The selection may vary on the number of total population or some other factors. The selection can be a name from the draw, particular numbers, etc. So, any of such selection methods which are based on selecting randomly is called a probability sampling. à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ § Non-probability Sampling: As the name suggests, we are not relying on probability to get the sample from the research population. That means we are not selec ting randomly unlike the probability sampling method. So, there can be a possibility that a non probability sample may not properly represent a population for which we are quite sure in probability sampling. Also, we are not able to understand in this that how well we have gathered results by testing this sample because it may or may not represent it properly. Most of the time if possible, researchers go for probability sampling, but sometimes due to lack of time, money or some other resources, it is not feasible to go for probability sampling (The Pennsylvania State University, 2016). Then, the researchers go for this sampling. It can be sub divided into two categories: purposive and accidental. In our case, we should go for probability sampling, since we cannot target everyone in a population which will take lots of time and money. It covers a lot of area of UK, so after taking samples from an area frame of the target customers, we can do probability sampling on it. Also, we canno t wait so much inorder to test each and everyone since we have deadlines to meet and release this product. We will select some people randomly and test them. It has many types like simple random sampling, cluster sampling, stratified and systematic (Polit Hungler, 2015). Probability SamplingIn probability sampling, it take some random selection to do the survey. Since we are taking a random selection, so there has to be some assurance or methods by which we should get an equal probability of different parameters to be chosen. In this approach, we can know that which sampling units are from which sample and can be assured that each of them are considered. The following sampling methods are examples of probability sampling:1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS): This one is the easiest of all the samples methods and easy to understand and do. Other methods are basically based on it, but with some variations. In this method, a researcher takes elements from the sampling frame randomly. It is based on the probability theory according to which all the elements will have a chance to express in this way. The elements are to be numbered first and a list is made. Then, the researcher will select the numbers which are in mathematical order randomly. He can use some table numbers or many statistical books have numbers available. There are many computer programs available that can generate a random list.There is no guarantee that every sample made from it will be perfect to show the population. But, we can infer that the sample represented will be close to target population and we can find out the probability of it. 2. Cluster Sampling: In this kind of sampling, the elements which are heterogeneous in nature as per the characteristics of group are taken. This will make a cluster of heterogenous elements and the homogeneous elements get clustered in other groups. In this way, clusters or groups are formed with similar characteristics. The main benefit of this sampling is that it is not very expensive. So, this sampling is different from another in a way that we are not choosing randomly from a population but making clusters first. Once these clusters are made, then sampling can be done from these clusters and then the test can be done to the individuals taken from these clusters. It helps in two ways: the cost is not high and so, it is more economical and in case of a dispersed population, if the researcher is not having an appropriate sampling frame, then this sampling helps a lot (Jewel, 2012). 3. Stratified Sampling: In case the target population on which the research is being conducted is heterogenous, then random selection will not produce an appropriate sample to test. Something may come in excess and some elements may lag behind and so, the theorem of probability will not work on this. In such cases, we have to do the stratification of the target population so as to make it homogenous and then to take out a sample of it by random sampling. So, from each mini stratums that are made in the target population are used to take a sub sample, out of which a final sample is drawn out (Gulf War Veterans, 2012). This sampling helps to increase efficiency and adequate appropriate data because we are making sub populations before taking final sample. 4. Systematic Sampling : Systematic sampling provides a shortcut for selecting randomly and so requires less time. First of all, we have to number all the elements in the sample. The researcher will not use a list in which they have selected random numbers, but instead of that, researcher will decide a interval for sampling. For example 1, element in x where x will be the interval number (Turner, 2003). This way systematically, he can select a sample from a frame. It is also easy for doing calculations on it later. Out of the methods mentioned above, I think we should go for stratified sampling due to following reasons: -1. Stratified sampling is more efficient than the other probability sam pling methods. Since, it makes different stratums which are homogenous among themselves in a group and differences with other groups. In our case also, not all males can afford the product or some may look for a particular thing in skin care or some may alter. So, to know the needs of different groups and then taking sample will bring more accurate results. It gives a big improvement in efficiency of sampling. 2. It gives a surety that the data of the sample is accurate because the criteria that we used to get it is very reliable. 3. Also, its feasible when the analyser wishes to study more qualities of a particular populations or subgroups. Therefore, if one wishes to conclude about activities in the different context of student body, stratified sampling will be in use4. Also, it is used wherein different methods of data collection are applied in different parts of the population. This can be significantly found when we actually survey different organizations employees using one me thod, but use a unique approach with employees distributed over the entire countryTo implement this plan, firstly we will take a household list of area that we need to target first. That will become our area frame which we will use for all our further sampling procedures. Then, we will take out the list of males from that list since they are only end users of our product. Now, we will do probability sampling on it, because the area is so large that we cannot go to each and everyone to test them. In probability sampling, we will do stratified sampling because Stratified sampling is more efficient than the other probability sampling methods. Since, it makes different stratums which are homogenous among themselves in a group and differences with other groups. In our case also, not all males can afford the product or some may look for a particular thing in skin care or some may alter. So, to know the needs of different groups and then taking sample will bring more accurate results. It g ives a big improvement in efficiency of sampling. It gives a surety that the data of the sample is accurate because the criteria that we used to get it is very reliable and also its feasible when the analyzer wishes to study more qualities of a particular population or subgroups (StatPac Inc., 2014). Therefore, if one wishes to conclude about activities in the different context of the student body, stratified sampling will be in use. It is used wherein different methods of data collection are applied in different parts of the population. This can be significantly found when we actually survey different organizations employees using one method, but use a unique approach with employees distributed over the entire countryThen a survey will be conducted on the sample of the target population which will test them on all our queries regarding its market, response, launch. Also, we will come to know the preferences of people, which will eventually help us to finalize that how we should do its branding. Accordingly, we can speak to advertize companies to prepare its various print and video advertisements before launch. Basically, we will test people as to what are the main qualities that they look for when it comes to superior skin care razor that they are not getting from currently available razors in the market. Since we are making different groups while doing stratification sampling, so the results can be different from its strata of people, which we need to collate and take similarities out of them. Then form the data, research will be conducted on it to gather relevant information from the raw data as per the requirements. In this way, sampling will help us a lot to get relevant information required to launch a new product in our target population. Bibliography Boyd, N., 2015. What is Sampling in Research?. What is Sampling in Research? - Definition, Methods Importance. Buskirk, T., 2016. Target Population and Sampling Frame in Survey Sampling. Target Population and Sampling Frame in Survey Sampling, 21 January. Gulf War Veterans, 2012. Definition of the sampling frame and sample, Available at: https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1018z12/MR1018.12.appb.pdfJewel, 2012. Sample designs and sample procedures. Sample designs and sample procedures, 14 July. Kruse, J., 2009. Sample Frames. Sample Frames, Available at: https://www.iser.uaa.alaska.edu/Projects/living_conditions/sample_frames.htmPolit Hungler, 2015. POPULATIONS AND SAMPLING. POPULATIONS AND SAMPLING, Available at: https://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/sample.html Royal Geographical Society, 2016. Sampling techniques. Sampling techniques, Available at: https://www.rgs.org/OurWork/Schools/Fieldwork+and+local+learning/Fieldwork+techniques/Sampling+techniques.htmS tatPac Inc., 2014. Survey Sampling Methods. Survey Sampling Methods, Available at: https://www.statpac.com/surveys/sampling.htmThe Pennsylvania State University, 2016. Simple Random Sampling and Other Sampling Methods. Simple Random Sampling and Other Sampling Methods. The Regents of the University of Michigan, 2010. Sampling Frameworks. Sampling Frameworks. Turner, A. G., 2003. Sampling frames and master samples: UNITED NATIONS SECRETARIAT, Available at: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/meetings/egm/sampling_1203/docs/no_3.pdf

Research Paper on Gelatin Essay Example

Research Paper on Gelatin Paper Gelatin is a gelling agents derived from collagen which is the main protein in mammals. Chemically gelatin typically consists of 90% protein and approximately 10% water and only traces of salts. Gelatin has received designation E441. Gelatin is used in many different areas but mainly in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Typical products that contain gelatin are candy and pharmaceutical capsules as well as various health preparations where gelatin is used as a protein supplement. Worldwide, about 300 000 tons of gelatin is manufactured and used per year. University students who are about to prepare their research paper on gelatin must understand that it is also used to bind the silver halide crystals in camera film. For this task, there are no suitable replacements. Competition Swimmers use gelatin to fix their hair during training and competition, this is because the cold water does not dissolve the gelatin. We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Gelatin specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Gelatin specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Gelatin specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The building blocks of different types of protein are amino acids. Our body can build the proteins we need, but there are ten so-called essential amino acids that must be included in the food, which the body itself cannot form. Nine of these essential amino acids found in gelatin. Gelatin is also used as part of blood plasma replacement during major blood loss in accidents, etc. Gelatin is also used as an ingredient in ballistic gel, which has the consistency and properties of mammalian tissue and used in the testing of firearms. Gelatin has a variety of unique properties of which the most important is the ability to form thermoreversible gels i.e., it solidifies on cooling and melts at higher temperature which occurs within a narrow temperature range. For the food industry, these properties are important, especially when it comes to low-fat products of various kinds since the melting properties in the mouth are reminiscent of fat. The most commonly occurring gelatin, commonly used in the food industry, is made of pigskin (that is, a pork product), but also a beef gelatin is common. The raw material comes from animal products, typically from animals bones and skin that veterinary control approved for human consumption. Protein (collagen) is derived from raw materials by hydrolysis, that is, it is extracted in hot water. The water with protein then goes through various stages of purification, desalination, thickening, sterilization, and drying. The legislation for gelatin production in Europe put high and detailed requirements for bacteriological and chemical purity. There are special types of gelatin produced to conform with Islam Halal rules or the Jewish kashrut rules. Because of mad cow disease (BSE) and its link to Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, there has previously been some concern about the possibility that the infected animal parts may be included in the production of gelatin but has proven to be entirely without risk. A study conducted in 2004 has shown both to commodity standards set detailed conditions and that the process used for gelatin production destroys any BSE prions. According to WHO, SSC, and the EU gelatin is safe to consume from that point. Free example research paper on gelatin is a good source of urgent information on the topic. Note! All research paper samples about Gelatin are 100% plagiarized!!! At EssayLib.com custom writing service you can buy a custom research paper on Gelatin topics. Your research paper will be written from scratch. We hire top-rated Ph.D. and Master’s writers only to provide students with professional research paper assistance at affordable rates. Each customer will get a non-plagiarized paper with timely delivery. Just visit our website and fill in the order form with all paper details: Enjoy our professional research paper writing service!

escapism and virtual reality essays

escapism and virtual reality essays `Virtual Reality', a new method of interacting with any computer, is presented and its advantages and disadvantages are considered. The human aspect of computing and computers as a form of escapism are developed, with especial reference to possible futu technological developments. The consequences of a weakening of the sense of reality based upon the physical world are also considered. Virtual Reality, or VR, is a concept that was first formally proposed in the early Seventies by Ted Nelson ComputerDreams. The basic idea is that human beings should design machines that can be operated in a manner that is as natural as possible, for th For instance, the standard QWERTY keyboard is a moderately good instrument for entering exactly the letters which have been chosen to make up a word and hence to construct sentences. Human communication, however, is often most fluent in speech, and so a computer that could understand spoken words (preferably of all languages) and splay them in a standard format such as printed characters, would be far easier to use, especially since the skills of speech exist from an early age, but typing has to be learnt, often painfully. All other human senses have similar analogies when considering their use with tools. Pictures are easier than words for us to digest quickly. A full range of sounds provides more useful information than beeps and bells do. It is easier to point at an it that we can see than to specify it by name. All of these ideas had to wait until the technology had advanced sufficiently to permit their implementation in an efficient manner, that is, both fast enough not to irritate the user and cheap enough for mas One long-standing area of interest in VR has been the simulation of military conflicts in the most realistic form possible. The flight simulator trainers of the 1970's had basic visual dis ...

Age Discrimination in the Society Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Age Discrimination in the Society - Term Paper Example When employment becomes scarce and population continues to increase, there is a tendency to change job qualifications from skill-focused to the overall qualities of the prospective employee. This includes the age, when it is not really necessary for the job description. The law protects the employment of the citizens aged 40 and above, and is not applicable for any "reasonable factor other than age" (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.). The law against age discrimination provides an equal employment opportunity for all Americans and helps them reach their full potential as employees with regard to their qualifications. Age discrimination hurts not only the people directly affected by it, but also in the overall effect of morality and the country’s economic thrusts. Age Discrimination and the Society Joyce Kalivas-Griffin, 57, and an experienced school teacher, believes that she failed to get a job she applied for because of her age (Linn, 2010). While she cries for age discrimination, Joyce's situation is not a solitary case in the world of employment. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission reports that there is a "33 percent increase in the number of age discrimination complaints filed during the past two fiscal years combined" (Linn, 2010). The impact of age discrimination does not only magnify the unequal treatment of aged employees despite their contribution and experience, but also reflects the superficial perspective of employers when it comes to choosing the right candidate for a job position. The law states, however, that the employer has the right to advertise age requirement only if it is necessary for the job. ... For instance, a man in his mid-50 was laid off because of his age. He is the breadwinner of his family and the sole provider for his children concerning education, food and shelter. His wife, on the other hand, is a plain housewife. His loss of employment has an immediate effect to him and to his family in a sense that the source of income is completely gone. Consider the effect it would bring to this 50-year old man. For so long, his family has been relying on him when it comes to everyday sustenance, and when unemployment comes as a shock, it would be harder for him to recover both financially and emotionally. The feeling of worthlessness enslaves the discriminated man and consequently affects his health due to stress. The money saved within the duration of employment reserved for his retirement years would be spent. The worst thing is, the savings may not be enough to compensate and would force him to resort to debts. According to McDowell (n.d.), the struggle of the victims of ag e discrimination may range from economic difficulties to psychological problems. Denial is a common form of self-preservation in this kind of case. When discriminated because of age, old people tend to do everything just to look younger and prove that they are still capable of doing the task as efficiently as the younger ones. They also resort to self-pity, detrimental to their overall psychological health. Butler (1975) said that victims of age discrimination wished â€Å"they were dead† at a certain point in their senior lives. Personal effects of age discrimination affect the person in all aspects of his life. What is unseen, however, is the impact it can bring to the nation’s economy as a whole. Personal debt is one of the economic constraints of employment discrimination, but